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This political economic analysis (PEA) examines the challenges facing freshwaterīiodiversity in Nepal’s Mahakali, Karnali and West Rapti (MKWR) river basins. This framework can be useful in addressing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 13, and 15 and can also be used as a tool for food system planning based on a broader nexus. Hence, we proposed a modified framework of food system foresight for developing resilience in a food system, which can be achieved with an integrated and resilient nexus that gives more emphasis to agro-ecological system-based solutions to make the food system more climate resilient. Improvement in the food system requires the building of synergy and complementary among the components of FWEB nexus. We found that the FWEB nexus-based approach is more relevant in the context of Nepal where food and nutrition insecurity prevails among almost half of the population. From this approach, food system foresight can benefit from different nature-based solutions such as agro-ecosystem-based adaptation and mitigation and climate-resilient agro-ecological production system. This paper reviews the food system of Nepal through the lens of the food-water-energy-biodiversity (FWEB) nexus to develop a more robust food system framework.
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It ensures the vital structures and functions of the ecosystem on which it is dependent are well protected in the face of increasing socioeconomic and climatic stress. The interlinking food system with water-energy-biodiversity nexus, therefore, is essential to achieve a resilient food system. Biodiversity, especially, agrobiodiversity is in decline and this vital cross-cutting element is less discussed and interlinked in nexus literature. Green Revolution technologies and the package of practices largely ignored the role of ecosystem services, leaving a large population of small farmers' food-and nutrition-insecure. Water, energy, and biodiversity are essential components for building a sustainable food system in a developing country like Nepal. We use this case to proffer recommendations for adapting other centralized, grey infrastructure and regulatory models of water management based upon lessons learned from this spontaneous adaptive management model shown in this case. We conclude that the combination of a hierarchical land ownership-based water distribution mechanism combined with what we term “bilateral compensatory mutual assistance” for the lowest profit agricultural water users, provides a model of spontaneous common pool resource management that fosters community drought resilience. Defined social roles and cultural conventions establish linked hierarchies of water ownership, profit-sharing and social responsibility collectively they provide a flexible and equitable system of role-sharing, social benefit distribution, socio-ecological resilience and adaptive capacity in the face of climate change-induced drought. From participant observational and interview data (n=32), we find that historically dependent community roles create a social contract that governs water sharing and distribution.
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The relationship between community social structure, indigenous knowledge, water management technologies and practices, and their collective role in sustainable natural resource governance in the face of anthropogenic climate change are explored through qualitative analysis. Through an in-depth ethnographic case study, we explore water management practices within the Jiroft County province in Iran and discuss the applicability of indigenous knowledge of locally-based sustainable water management initiatives to the resource governance challenges of arid and drought-prone regions across the world.